Donkey -Meaning,Breeds, Nutritional & Care

Mshindo Media

Introduction

The donkey,Equus africanus asinus, is a domesticated member of the Equidae or horse family. The wild ancestor of the donkey is the African Wild Ass, E. africanus.

A male donkey is called a jack, a female a jenny, and offspring less than one year old, a foal (male: colt, female filly).

While different species of the Equidae family can interbreed, offspring are almost always sterile. Nonetheless, horse/donkey hybrids are popular for their durability and vigor.

A mule is the offspring of a jack (male donkey) and a mare (female horse). The much rarer successful mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a hinny.

Donkeys were first domesticated around 3000 BC, approximately the same time as the horse, and have spread around the world. They continue to fill important roles in many places today and domesticated species are increasing in numbers, but the African wild ass and another relative, the Onager, are endangered. As “beasts of burden” and companions, donkeys have worked together with humans for millennia.

With domestication of almost all donkeys, few species now exist in the wild. Some of them are the African Wild Ass (Equus africanus) and its subspecies Somalian Wild Ass (Equus africanus somaliensis). The Asiatic wild ass or Onager (Equus hemionus), and its relative the Kiang (Equus kiang), are closely related wild species.

Domestic donkey breeds

An incomplete list of domestic donkey breeds includes the:

  • Abyssinian Donkey 
  • American Spotted Donkey 
  • Cypriot Donkey 
  • Mammoth Donkey 
  • Mammoth Jack 
  • Miniature Mediterranean Donkey 
  • Poitou Donkey: The Poitou Donkey breed was developed in France for the sole purpose of producing mules. It is a large donkey breed with a very long shaggy coat and no dorsal stripe. 
  • Spotted Ass 
  • Standard Donkey 
  • Burro – adopted wild Burro 
  • Wild Ass, Onager and Kiang 
  • East African Donkey Breeding While different species of the Equidae family can interbreed, offspring are almost always sterile. Nonetheless, horse/donkey hybrids are popular for their durability and vigor. A mule is the offspring of a jack (male donkey) and a mare (female horse). The much rarer successful mating of a male horse and a female donkey produces a hinny. Mules were common in East Africa until the 70’s since when they are hardly ever seen. They were used widely as pack animals during the war and on safari. The mule is, generally, a much bigger animal than the East Africa donkey. They are usually a dark brown and their ears are much longer than a donkey’s. Their size makes them stronger than a donkey, but they are not as obliging as a donkey Jennies are pregnant for approximately 11 months, and usually give birth to one foal. Twins are very rare and, where this occurs, one of the twins would more than likely be very small and would not survive. Why Horse-donkey hybrids are almost always sterile Reason Horses have 64 chromosomes whereas donkeys have 62, producing offspring with 63 chromosomes. The offspring of a zebra-donkey cross is called a, zebroid. Occasionally zebroids are seen in areas of East Africa where donkeys and zebras graze in close proximity. They are easily identified by stripes on their legs, quarters and, sometimes, their sides. This cross is often found to be very difficult to train as zebra are known for their unfriendly nature and it seems that this trait is passed on to the young. The offspring of a zebra-donkey cross is called a, zebroid. Occasionally zebroids are seen in areas of East Africa where donkeys and zebras graze in close proximity. They are easily identified by stripes on their legs, quarters and, sometimes, their sides. This cross is often found to be very difficult to train as zebra are known for their unfriendly nature and it seems that this trait is passed on to the young. Nutrition – Feeding your donkey Donkeys generally take good care of themselves by using the feed efficiently for maintaining their own body, but perform even better when we take good care of them and feed them well. Donkeys that are well fed are generally healthier, more productive and cost less to maintain. Donkeys’ tough digestive system is somewhat less prone to colic than that of horses, and is able to break down near-inedible vegetation, extracting moisture from food very efficiently. A donkey in a good body condition is less susceptible to injuries and skin damages than a skinny donkey. A donkey eats very little and is able to work long hours. In return you must feed the donkey so that maintains the same body weight even in periods of hard work or/and being pregnant. It can use low quality, high fibrous feed and likes to graze and browse. They use protein very efficient and can do with low protein fodder. Jennies in late gestation and lactating jennies need more energy and protein for the growth of the foetes and to supply the foal with sufficient milk. When a female donkey has a foal, she will need time off.  There is a very high mortality rate in donkey foals which is undoubtedly caused by the mother being worked to soon and too hard after birth, resulting in poor or insufficient milk production – the baby donkey will suffer from malnutrition and, in the worst case, will die from starvation. Donkeys can be fed with fresh grass (grazing), all kind of hay and all kind of by-products. With a mixed ration, requirements for minerals, trace elements and vitamins will be met. With only old hay in the ration and no green feeds, mineral licks should be supplied. The longer the feed has been in the shamba, the harder it will be for the donkey to digest, the more it declines in proteins and the more it increases in fibre. Forage that “smokes” when shaken is moldy. Abortion, colic, and even death have been attributed to moldy hay.  Avoid feeding your donkey with food that has turned moldy. Don’t allow your donkeys to feed on garbage, its dangerous for their health.
  • Energy foods Energy food gives donkey the strength to live, walk and work. The more energy foods your donkey eats the harder it can work and the stronger it will be. Donkeys get energy mainly from feeding on grass and straw. Feeds which contain higher leaf to stem ratio makes a feed more nutritious and easier to eat. Such feed has greater nutritional value.
  • Protein foods Protein in foods gives your donkey what it needs to grow, stay healthy and recover from injuries and illness. Young donkeys need a lot of protein to grow, they get it from the mother’s milk. Donkeys get protein from dark green foods like alfalfa, bean straw and some types of trees like acacia. You can also supplement protein with cattle or sheep’s food. However, any of these supplements should NOT contain UREA (in organic it is not allowed to add urea as protein source or improve digestibility).
  • Fats Fats in food help to keep your donkey healthy and warm. Body fats act as a store of energy when food is in short supply. Most of the donkey’s food does not contain much fat, but its body can make fat and store it from the surplus  energy and protein not needed for labour, growth, milk.
  • Vitamins Vitamins keep your donkey healthy and strong. If it doesn’t get vitamins it will become weak and sick. Donkeys get vitamins from fresh green foods like vegetables or grass. Green feed in normally higher in all vitamins, particularly vitamin A. Dry, old grass contains few vitamins.
  • Minerals Minerals and salts give your donkey strong bones, teeth and a higher blood count. If your donkey doesn’t get enough minerals its bones become weak and fragile. If a donkey doesn’t get enough salt it will feel weak. On hot days it loses salt from its body through sweat and needs to eat more salt to replace the lost salts. Feeds from legumes, like alfalfa and clover are normally higher in proteins, vitamins and minerals (especially calcium) that feeds from grass Donkey’s Health and Diseases
  • Donkeys are more stoic, therefore detecting ailment/disease becomes more difficult as dullness and depression maybe the only apparent sign. Therefore a donkey maybe in an advanced stage before a clinician is called to attend to such.Daily health checking of the donkeys’ condition include:
  • Observing how the donkey responds to your arrival, as well as its food and water
  • Check the fecal consistency 
  • Check that the eyes are bright and clear; wipe away eye secretions as they attract flies.
  • Check the hooves- overgrowth, cracks, abnormal smells
  • Check the skin for external parasites such as ticks
  • Check for donkeys’ gait- for signs of lameness. A. Handling and restraint
  • This is an important aspect in management of donkey diseases/condition; wrong handling of donkeys while undertaking any examination may lead to the animal being un-friendly and therefore difficult to restrain. In normal situations when appropriate handling procedure are practiced the animal should be calm and be examined without much ado. However in highly strung animals, mistreated donkeys or one experiencing pain; restraining may be a challenge hence the need of chemical restraint.The following basic rules should be observed when handling the donkey.
  • Use minimum level of restraint; don’t use force while restraining the animal. 
  • If the animal becomes difficult don’t beat him/her but you need to stop and reassess the situation. 
  • Always impress upon the owner/user on proper restraining of his/her animal; as this will save you valuable time. Advice them on the need of not pulling the ears or applying pressure on the nose as this will make the donkey uncomfortable and it will become wild hence difficulty in restraining as well as altering the vital body parameters such as respiratory and temperature which will otherwise interfere with diagnosis. 
  • To avoid scaring the animal do minimize the number of people around so as not to scare the donkey.
  • Don’t use several types of restraint concurrently. 
  • If the restraint method is not working STOP and reassess the situation.
  • The safety of the animal, yourself and others depend on you; therefore show the handler appropriate restraining procedure Handling of Donkeys The Best Way to approach a Donkey
  • Unless the donkey knows you; it will be important for it to be handle by someone it knows and trust, otherwise it will be cautious about allowing you to move closer.
  • It is important to approach a donkey from the sideway and never directly from the back where a donkey cannot see you clearly nor directly from the front (donkey feels threatened) as these are the two blind spots for a donkey. However, at times if it is approached from the side the animal may turn to present its hind limbs a posture favorable for kicking, but the donkey should be encouraged to do the approaching instead, as described below.
  • Donkeys are flight (wild) animals and thus should not jump to grab them forcefully. When a donkey’s ears are pointing backwards and its tail is switching strongly from side to side-this means it’s frightened and preparing to kick. In such a situation it’s better to check what is frightening it and remove the threat. If the donkey obviously considers the approaching person to be the threat, then that person must stand still, make soothing noises, use the donkey’s name and hold some tidbit to encourage the donkey to make the approach to the person rather than the person approaching the donkey.
  • It’s also advised to approach and work with donkeys, and stand before mounting on them always from the “near” or left side. The right side is called the “off” side. Behavioral restraint 
  • Make the animal comfortable before attempting to restrain it.
  • Bring the animal closer to other animals; where it will feel comfortable; if it is a mare with a foal ensures it is closer / can see it Physical restraints
  • Use a strong, natural rope twice as long as the donkey.
  • Tying /use halter or head collar.
  • Use non slip knot on the halter.
  • Use a quick release knot.
  • Hold the donkeys chin gently.
  • If Casting (lateral recumbence) it is necessary to sedate (by veterinarian) the animal so as to avoid fear & distress Halter 
  • A halter can be made from a piece of sisal rope; but one should avoid using nylon rope against the skin. A simple slip halter can be made with loops. Ensure that the halter doesn’t become too tight across the head and doesn’t apply too much pressure on the nose as this will block the animal from breathing hence cause discomfort and the animal will start being wild. Head collar 
  • Head collars are suitable for donkeys’; they should have buckles to adjust the size of the straps around the nose. This way the head collar can be made big enough to go around a donkey’s nose. Chin hold for donkeys
  • For most donkeys this is sufficient, however when more restraint is required hold by the chin and the base of the ear. Put the flat of your hand under the animal’s chin, the put your thumb across its mouth and grip (do not grab) with your fingers. Blind folding
  • Covering a donkey’s eyes with your hand, a towel or a similar cloth will often make it stand quietly. This is more useful in the field. Lifting the front leg
  • This helps to prevent kicking from a hind leg(s). Pick up the front leg on the same side as the back leg on which you are working. Two people may be required for this technique; one person keeps the head still while the other holds up the front leg. However this method is not suitable for very nervous donkeys/horses. In such situations then light sedation is necessary. Sedation for examination
  • Only veterinarians should attempt to sedate donkeys, so directions are not listed here, but for some types of examination sedation is necessary. Please consult you veterinarian.
  • Veterinary care – common diseases and conditions General signs of disease
  • Donkeys tend to be quite healthy. When a donkey falls ill, give it a rest in a quiet place with food and water. Consult, if possible, the local animal health agent or veterinarian. A farmer should be able to tell in an early stage whether the donkey is sick. Signs of ill health are when a donkey:                                              
  • has a very warm muzzle, pasterns and feet;
  • has a nervous or depressed expression
  • hangs its head 
  • has a rough coat with hairs standing up
  • stands with all four legs close under it
  • is reluctant to take steps 
  • is sweating before work
  • does not pass faeces or urine, or if these are abnormal
  • The earlier a disease is recognised, the sooner treatment can start. The cost of medicine or loss of work power can thus be minimi The common diseases mentioned hereunder are:
  • 1. Wounds
  • 2. Rectal prolapsed
  • 3. Hoof Problems- Pedal Sepsis, Laminitis
  • 4. Skin conditions and diseases -Swellings under the skin include- Abscesses, hernia, haematoma, tumour, oedema etc.  -Skin diseases- Bacterial Diseases, Viral Diseases, Parasitic Diseases, Fungal Diseases
  • 5. External Parasites- Ticks, Lice and fleas, Mange
  • 6. Internal parasites -Gut worm (intestinal): round worms or tapeworm -Lungworms -Flukes (trematodes)- inhabit liver and intestine -Stomach spirurids worms and larvae causing cutaneous habronemiasis
  • 7. Infectious diseases -Bacterial diseases -Viral diseases -Fungal diseases
  • 8. Main respiratory diseases 
  • 9. Colic
  • 10. Zoonotic diseases
  • 11. Teeth problems
  • 12. Horse sickness
  • 13. Mud Fever  1. Equine Wound Management General wound care 
  • The wound should be cleaned with clean salty water. While a wound is healing the cause of the wound should be removed and the animal rested; if available a mild disinfectant can be used (dilute iodine 1-2%) Fresh Wound management
  • Clip the hair around the edge of the wound 
  • Wash using clean water. 
  • Use fly repellant chemicals 
  • NB. Oxygen is a vital part of the wound repair process; anaerobic conditions may arise if the wound contains both a disrupted blood supply and an enclosed surfaced; puncture wounds are notorious for the development of these conditions and this provides an ideal circumstances for some of the most notorious Clostridial infections eg C. tetani is classic wound contaminant; to which Penicillin is highly effective. A fully vaccinated donkey may contract tetanus when the wounds are highly contaminated with the causative agent.
  • Wounds with impaired oxygen delivery require careful management to eliminate anaerobic conditions and encourage a good oxygen supply. NB: In case of deep wounds it is important to administer Tetanus toxin currently available: i. Managing Infected wound
  • It is paramount to remove all the dead tissues and any foreign bodies in the wound using a scapel blade which may delay the healing of the wound. Ideally after 6-8 hours a wound is considered to be contaminated therefore the need of using prophylactic antibiotic. Any suspected infection should be flushed using diluted hydrogen peroxide should not be used in any healing wound – ensure there is proper drainage for the hydrogen peroxide; this is followed by lavaging and later application of diluted (1-2%) Povidone iodine. 2. Rectal prolapse
  • This is where the lower or the end part of the gut may turn out/ come out of the body. This is commonly seen in working donkeys that are suffering from heavy helminthiasis (internal worm parasitism) – Gasterophilus larvae (Bot fly); diarrhea and malnutrition. While feeding of dry feed (bran, maize or rice straws) without adequately providing the donkey with water. Overloading/overworking may also predispose the donkey to the condition.Other causes include parturition and colic. a) Manifestation
  • The owner complains of a mass of reddish (meat) hanging from the rectum. The rectum is oedematous/swollen, reddish or cyanotic (survival rate is low). Ruptured (cracks) due to excessive edema. Necrosismay have set in. b) Treatment 
  • Identification of the initial cause is paramount for effective management Physical Restraint of the animal may be enhanced chemically (Xylazine or ACP) Gently cleaning of the rectum and the perineum (vulva in female) with mild disinfectant (diluted Savlon or soapy water) ensuring no or minimal damage to the organ and the surrounding tissue. Remove any necrotic tissue. 
  • NB: Apply hygroscopic compounds (sugar) – salt is very irritating and should be avoided where possible to reduce the edema fully (patience is of essence). These should be washed off as they are act as good media for microbial growth.
  • Lubricate with liquid paraffin or any other water soluble gel. Gently and carefully return/replace the rectum to its normal anatomical position. Patience is required. Do not push against peristalsis. If necessary, retention with purse string suture is recommended but normal passage of faeces to be ensured (Local anesthesia required). The Suture should not be left in place for more than 12 hours. Antibiotics and anti-inflammatory should be given when there is need. Treat the underlying cause.
  • The owner should be advised provide water ad lib and to monitor defaecation 3. Hoof care and Management
  • Donkeys’ feet generally require trimming every 6-10 months dependent on the terrain; owners should be encouraged to check/examine all the four feet on a daily basis to remove debris, stones and other foreign bodies. Common Hoof Problems
  • Lameness is caused by pain in some part of the leg. Lameness may be in more than one leg. The foot of the lame leg is held pointing to the ground especially in front leg lameness. There is a difference in amount of muscle in the shoulder of lame leg and normal leg. a) Pedal Sepsis
  • Is an acute lameness presenting as non-weight bearing lameness; abscesses frequently track proximally from the white line at the bearing surface to eventually rupturing at the coronary band. It is important to first trim the foot back to a normal length and conformation, exposing a clean bearing surface free of all but deeper lesions; the entire weight bearing surface should then be explored, paying attention to the white line area. Black marks, especially those adjacent to the sole axially are suspicious.
  • NB: Digital pressure at the coronary band may illicit a response from related distal abscess. One may resect the overlying hoof wall to facilitate drainage; however avoid injury and Prolapse of the underlying sensitive corium. b) Lainitis
  • A common problem usually not recognized by the owner which may cause damage to the hoof. Causes are varied and include
  • Excessive feeding of carbohydrate rich feed. E.g. bran 
  • Grain overload
  • Trauma
  • Generalized septicemia/toxemia. Clinical signs
  • Reluctance to move, recumbency
  • Pain on coronary band 
  • Increased digital artery pressure
  • Weight shifting
  • Weight bearing on heals Treatment
  • Remove the cause 
  • Analgesia NSAIDS flunixn- IV, then by mouth- Phenylbutazone
  • ACP Hoof Care
  • The hoof grows throughout its life but wears down as it grows. The hoof may overgrow when the animal is rested or injured. When  the hooves are overgrown/ deformed they must be trimmed When severely deformed trimming should be done in two sessions with two weeks gap to  ensure the hoof gets back to its normal shape and angle. Steps for Hoof trimming
  • Cut the sole back with a sharp knife. Immediately stop cutting when you see a pink color/blood. 
  • Cut the over grown wall using hoof cutter.
  • Use a rasp/file to tidy up the hoof wall
  • Trim the frog using a sharp knife to its normal shape. 4 Skin Condition and Diseases a. Swellings under the skin include:
  • Abscesses, hernia, haematoma, tumour, oedema‘ etc. i. Abscess 
  • This is pus accumulation under the skin.Management of AbscessTreatment is by lancing, cleaning/flushing using diluted hydrogen peroxide and apply diluted iodine- ensure the created wound will be able to drain. ii. Haematoma 
  • This is accumulation of blood under the skin due to injury leading to bleeding under the skin. The swelling is soft at first but doesn’t pit under pressure. It is less painful than an abscess. An uninfected haematoma should be left alone; as it heals with the blood clots and the serum being absorbed. Infected haematoma is treated in the same way as an abscess. iii. Tumours 
  • Sarcoid is a viral skin tumour/cancer that resembles a large hairless warts; it is commonly found on the hairless areas, around genitals, eyes and nostrils. If untreated they enlarge and ulcerated with continuous discharges; they are prone to fly strike. Management is through surgical excision – ensuring the whole mass is removed. b. Skin diseases 
  • Skin disease includes changes of the skin due to bacterial, viral and parasitic as well as fungal infections.Common skin diseases include: i. Bacterial Diseases
  • Dermatophilosis 
  • Glanders
  • Ulcerative lymphangitis
  • Fistulous withers and poll evil  ii. Viral Diseases
  • Sarcoids iii. Parasitic Diseases
  • Ticks 
  • Lice and flea
  • Myasis (warbles)
  • Manges iv. Fungal Diseases
  • a. Ring worm
  • This is caused by Trichophyton and Microsporum spp. which tends to grow in circular hairless rings, nodules and abscesses on skin. It is spread by close contact with infected animals/equipments. Prevention
  • Avoid contact of infected and uninfected animals/equipments. 
  • Treatment- severe cases of ring worm are treated with anti-fungal creams such or oral griseofulvin (contraindicated in pregnant mares) otherwise most cases recover naturally. b. Epizootic Lymphangitis
  • Fungus: Histoplasma fasciminosum: causes lumps and abscesses on skin and mucus membranes, in eyes causes discharges which attracts flies leading to irritation and rubbing of the affected areas. Prevention and Control 
  • This can be done by use of anti-fungal drugs and/or surgical removal of nodules or use of Zinc oxide ointment on skin. 5. External Parasites i. Ticks:
  • Are large bloods sucking insects that attach to the soft skin under the tail, inside the fore and hind legs and in ears. They transmit blood parasites that cause blood loss and diseases such as Babesiosis. ii. Lice and fleas
  • Lice are found usually in the mane and the tail in poorly fed and young animals. They cause itchiness causing the animal to rub and lick itself. Signs will include patchy losses of hair, excessive rubbing, scratching and biting at skin, restlessness, scabs, exudates formation, head shaking. iii. Mange 
  • These are parasitic mites that burrow into the skin and cause intense irritation resulting in biting and rubbing by the animal. Mites are characterized by severe irritation, thickened skin with gray scabs and surface flakes Prevention and treatment 
  • Mites can be transmitted from one donkey to another by contact or grooming equipment, so avoid contact of animals and using the same grooming material. Mange is treated with Ivermectin (three time each 10 days apart (day o, day 10, day 21). Control and Prevention of External Parasites
  • Use of organophosphates such as Stelladone®, Synthetic pyrethroids such as Delete®, Decatix®
  • NOTE: Amitraz such as Triatix®, Norotraz®, are contraindicated in equines. However there are some farmers who have used amitraz with no side effects reported; this can be achieved if the animal is given adequate water before applying the acaricide. At all times ensure the unit is cleaned and beddings replaced while you control the parasite on the animal. 
  • 6. Internal Parasites
  • These include: -Tape worms -Liver flukes -Roundworms.
  • These are variations with different kinds of worms  Symptoms of worms: 
  • Lethargy 
  • Poor coat
  • Poor condition
  • Anaemia Prevention/Treatment:
  • Removal of faeces from pasture every 2-3 months or rotate grazing to reduce contamination of grazing resulted in a decrease in worm egg counts This is a simple, low cost method of reducing worm burden in donkeys. Keeping animals in fly-proof accommodation for at least part of the day when vector flies are prevalent, can also reduce the incidence. a. Strogylosis 
  • Strongyles are found world wide, the larvae cause colic and death. The larvae migrating in the body tissue causes:
  • Pain and colic
  • Fever
  • Loss of appetite
  • Damage to an artery to the intestine. Adult strongyles are found lining the gut and feed on the animals blood which results in weakness and poor body condition  Prevention:
  • In areas where the worm burden is high it is advisable to deworm the donkey after every three or six months intervals. In other instances strategic deworming is the best way of controlling the worms which targets the period when the infective stage of the worm is highest. Treatment: use any of the following: lvermectin orally or Fenbendazole b. Ascarid worms
  • These worms don’t cause much problem to the adult donkeys except when they block the gut hence causing colic; but poses problem in foals Clinical signs 
  • Coughing 
  • Weakness and emaciation
  • Unthriftness
  • Adult worms are some times seen in dung Prevention and treatment
  • Treat all foals aged eight week and above, by which time the animal would have developed immunity. The drugs of choice are Piperazine or Ivermectin. c. Tape worms/ Cestodes
  • These are less harmful to donkeys as compared to round worms. The animal doesn’t show overt signs of infection/infestation but in case of large numbers they cause intestinal blockage, colic and caecal perforation.
  • Note: Diagnosis using the faecal floation method has low sensitivity, due to un-even egg distribution in faeces- though it is highly specific as the tapeworm eggs distinctively angular and readily identified. Treatment:
  • Pyrantel or Praziquantel compounds. d. Liver fluke Disease
  • The fluke is a leaf-shaped parasite that lives in the bile ducts of the liver. This condition is only found at PM, in a live animal they asymptomatic. Clinical sign
  • Tiredness 
  • Loss of appetite 
  • Swelling on the skin Prevention and treatment
  • Avoiding animals grazing in swampy areas is effective prevention method. 
  • Oxyclozanide or triclabendazole are used to treat fluke. Dewormers/Anthelmintics for donkeys in the Market
  • N.B: Administration of Oxfendazole and Fenbendazole over a number of consecutive days may prove more effective against most resistant parasites than a single administration. Control and Prevention
  • Strategic deworming 
  • Practice clean pastures/feed management.
  • Frequent use of anthelmintics and sub-optimal dosing may cause resistance.
  • Egg counts to be used as a guide to worming e.g. in treatment of tapeworm this is done when there is positive identification of eggs in faeces.
  • 7. Infectious Diseases
  • Infectious diseases of equine include viral, bacterial, fungal as well as parasitic disease in broader sense. Here we will consider only certain of these infectious agents. A. Bacterial Diseases  a. Strangles 
  • This disease looks like flu initially with coughing which disappears later. Clinical signs
  • Early case – High temperature, watery discharge from the nose, coughing Later cases – Cough disappears, difficulty of swallowing, thick, creamy, white pus (nasal discharge) Treatment  – Resting the animal, nursing (offering soft, moist food), and antibiotic (preferably Penicillin based) treatment. b. Tetanus or Lock Jaw
  • Caused by Clostridium tetani; it is associated with soil contamination of sores and wounds from ill-fitting harnesses and poor hygiene during surgery. Clinical signs 
  • History of deep wound(s) which can already be healed completely. 
  • Muscle stiffness and locked jaw-unable to eat and swallow food
  • Dilated pupil
  • The animal has a frightened expression 
  • The ears stickup
  • Respiratory failure and death Treatment  – Use of tetanus toxoid, heavy dose of Penicillin and sedatives, keep the animal in a calm place. Open the suspected wound and flush it with hydrogen peroxide. Prevention and Control
  • Can be prevented by complete treatment of wounds and cleanliness/ hygiene in surgical procedures. B. Viral Diseases a. Flu – Is caused by viruses  Clinical features 
  • High temperature.
  • Later on there is coughing
  • Watery discharge from the nostrils which later becomes thicker and yellowish.
  • As time goes on the cough becomes more severe. Prevention – Vaccination   B. Fungal Diseases a. Epizootic lymphangitis 
  • This disease affects equines especially when they are crowded. The infection gets into the body through damage to skin and can be carried by biting flies. Clinical signs
  • Development of lumps under the skin along the lymphatic stream. 
  • The lumps burst and yellow pus discharges 
  • Emaciation. Prevention
  • Affected animals should be kept away from healthy animals. 
  • Harnesses and grooming equipment should be disinfected.
  • Control of insects.
  • Severe cases should be euthanized. 8. Main Respiratory Diseases 
  • Diseases that affect respiratory system
  • a) Strangles – This a highly contagious bacterial infection of the equine (as discussed above
  •  b) Pneumonia: is an inflammation of the bronchioles
  • The most common complaint in donkeys is pneumonia. This is generally brought abut by poor management practices and working undernourished donkeys too hard for too long. The result is exhaustion and the donkey is not able to deal with the challenge presented by exhaustion, dehydration and cold (at night). This will, inevitably, result in pneumonia Other causes include:
  • Secondary to viral or bacterial upper respiratory disease
  • Inhalation of foreign material e.g. food, drenched or stomach-tube medicines (aspiration pneumonia)  Symptoms:
  • Reluctance to move. 
  • Arched back. 
  • Head hanging.
  • Shallow/fast breathing.
  • Temperature  Clinical signs
  • Fever 
  • Increased pulse rate 
  • Increased respiratory rate
  • Coughing 
  • Nasal discharge  Prevention/Treatment: 
  • Good food. 
  • Plenty water. 
  • At least two weeks complete rest. 
  • Allow animals with respiratory disease to rest and recover properly, before starting heavy work again,
  • Treat secondary bacterial infections early (antibiotics – see below),
  • Avoid drenching equines with wormers, liquid paraffin etc. and use extreme care when passing a stomach tube  Treatment  – Penicillin or Trimethoprim-sulphonamides for at least 7 days, NSAIDs, Rest in a clean, dust-free areas,
  • c) Lung worms 
  • Lung worms can cause inflammation of the bronchioles in equines 
  • Infection mainly acquired towards end of wet season 
  • Clinical signs
  • persistent coughing for several months 
  • may have slightly increased respiratory rate and mildly increased lung sound 
  • non-progressive condition 
  • Preventions
  • Remove faeces from environment to prevent transmission 
  • Avoid keeping horses with donkeys 
  • If horses are kept with donkeys, treat the donkeys for worms, 
  • Treat regularly for worms(every 3 months)
  • Treatment 
  • Ivermectin 0.2 mg/kg(1ml/50 kg) or 
  • Fenbendazole 15 mg/kg or
  • Thiabendazole 440 mg/kg and repeat after 2 days
  • D. Protozal Diseases a. Trypanosomiasis 
  • A part from the common species of Trypanosoma causing Trypanosomosis in equines; donkeys are also affected by tsetse transmitted Trypanosomosis (T. vivax, T. congolense and T. brucei) commonly referred to as Nagana in cattle. Therefore in tsetse fly endemic areas, donkeys are also at a higher risk and may not the necessary attention as the other domestic livestock. It’s usually an acute or chronic disease depending on the species of tsetse fly; these signs are dependent on the nutrition status of the animal, pregnancy status, level of work, level of stress, general health status and any concurrent disease.
  • Clinical findings
  • Intermittent fever (comes and goes), weakness and progressive thinness (loss of body weight) tired easily and may stop eating, anaemia/ pale mucus membranes (gums, conjunctiva), swollen lymph nodes, limbs and belly with edema, sensitivity to light, dullness, dragging hind limbs, loss of balance, seizures, head pressing, cycling and paralysis are signs of brain infection.
  • Diagnosis 
  • Use thin and thick blood smear (blood sample take when there is fever and from peripheral venous supply preferably the ears vein.
  • Treatment
  • The drugs used must be used with a lot of caution and be injected deep intramuscularly due to tissue necrosis and toxicity.The Preparation in the market include:
  • 1. Homiduim bromide or Homidium Chloride 1mg/kg bwt example Ethidium and Novidium
  • .2. Diminazene aceturate (Berenil, Norotryp) can cause nervous signs and death if not carefull used. Dose: 3.5mg/kg
  • 3. Isometamidium chloride: for prophylaxis and curative: use separate needle for filling the syringe and jabbing.
  • 4. Quinapyramine sulfate: prior to its use the donkey must be well rested; fatigue can cause curare like reaction.
  • NOTE: Trypanocidals do not cross the blood-brain barrier hence once nervous signs have commenced it is inadvisable to treat such an animal but it is imperative for it to be euthanized. Prevention/controlControl the fly on the animal and treat diagnosed cases on time.
  • b. Babesiosis
  • Babesiosis is caused by intra-erythrocytic protozoan parasites; Babesia. This is a tick transmitted disease, whose vectors include Hyalomma, Dermacentor and Rhipicephalus ticks; intrauterine infection, particularly with B. equi, is also relatively common.
  • Clinical findings
  • The incubation period ranges from 5 – 21 days. The signs include fever (frequently 105.8°F [41°C] or higher), inappetence, increased respiratory rate, muscle tremors, anemia, jaundice, depression, marked thirst, lacrimation, swelling of the eyelids, weight loss; hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria occur in the final stages. 
  • Affected donkeys are constipated, passing small, hard ball of faeces covered with yellow mucus, may loose the health condition. Sometimes donkeys can show colic symptoms viz. looking at flank, pawing, kicking at belly region, lying down and rolling, due to sluggish intestinal peristaltic movements and constipation. 
  • NB: The most characteristic sign is the development of icterus, mucus membranes vary from pale pink to pale yellow to bright yellow in color. Petechiae or ecchymosed haemorrhages are seen on the mucus membranes of nasal passages, vagina or third eyelids. Extremely large spleen in the affected animals is the common symptom. 
  • Untreated or neglected cases become severely anemic, malaise, reluctant to move, down neck, inappetence, disinterest in surroundings and show signs of general weakness. Development of progressive anemia and haemoglobinuria in the last clinical phase of the disease is pathognomonic sign in B. equi infection in horses and also in donkeys. Equines usually have higher threshold for escape of haemoglobin through urine from the circulation, hence haemoglobinuria is observed as last irreversible clinical sign signifying nephrosis and subsequent renal failure.
  • Chronic cases are more common in donkeys and clinical signs are usually non specific including mild inappetence, poor work performance or poor body weight gain. Mixed infections are not uncommon therefore making diagnosis difficult. Clinically, babesiosis can be confused with other conditions that cause fever, anemia, hemolysis, jaundice, or red urine. Therefore, confirmation of a diagnosis by microscopic examination of Giemsa-stained blood or organ smears is essential. From the live animal, thick and thin blood smears should be prepared, preferably from capillaries in the ear or tail tip.
  • Hemoglobin concentration, PCV level, red blood cell counts reduces significantly in donkeys infected acutely with B. equi parasite. Acute infection is also characterized by severe leucocytosis, lymphopenia, high absolute neutrophils count. Post mortem signs from B.equi include: varying degree of emaciation, gross enlargement of the liver and spleen and flabby kidneys. Small pin point petechiae haemorrhages are also present on liver, spleen and cortical surface of the kidney. Lungs are edematous, congested and enlarged lymph nodes. 
  • Treatment
  • If equine babesiosis is diagnosed and treated early, there is an excellent chance of recovery. . Imidocarb (Imizol®is a babesiacidal drug that is administered at a dosage of 2.2mg /kg. Two treatments are administered at a 24-hour interval. For cases of Babesia equi that are resistant to therapy, a dose of 4mg /kg is administered 4 times at 72-hour intervals. This regimen is often effective in treating the infection. 
  • Prevention
  • This by control of tick infestations and avoiding iatrogenic transfer of infected blood during routine surgical and medical procedures. 
  • 9. Colic
  • Colic: means abdominal pain (the stomach or intestine), affecting all equine species; however donkeys show fewer behavioural signs to pain
  • Causes of colic
  • This is caused by many different conditions affecting the internal organs. Most cases of colic are associated with poor management practices. The common causes include: 
  • Feed
  • Sudden changes to what the donkey eats, such as overfeeding and irregular feeding- e.g. too much food at once ortoo much grain.
  • Poor quality food, such as moldy hay, or too much dry straw (indigestible roughage 
  • Long gaps between meals 
  • Fresh highly fermentable green fodder that produce gas 
  • Water
  • Not enough water 
  • Rapid drinking of too much (cold) water 
  • Water not supplied regularly
  • Internal parasites – Some internal parasites can cause colic.
  • Poor Teeth – Will lead to large junk of food passing through hence causing blockage.
  • Sand – the animal may swallow sand if it is grazing on the sandy ground where grass is scanty. The swallowed sand can cause inflammation and impaction in the gut.
  • Eating strange things – Plastic bags, pieces of ropes and all sorts of rubbish can accumulate along gut and cause colic
  • Clinical signs of Colic
  • Kicking or looking at flank
  • Sweating
  • Restless
  • Reduced appetite
  • Rolling on the ground
  • Pawing the ground
  • Diagnosis
  • History: to be taken to establish change in management to be noted- change of diet, access to excess feed.
  • Assessment of pain: donkeys don’t show overt signs of pain- so colic may not be identified until the terminal stages of disease. A donkey in pain will stand with its head lowered, lie down or not respond as normal and may be dull. Dullness is the most common sign of impactive colic followed by reduced appetite.
  • Heart rate: goes up from about 44/min to 60/min in donkeys with impaction colic while other types of colic cause heart rates upto 60-100/min.
  • Respiratory rate: severe abdominal pain may increase the respiratory rate in an apparent attempt to reduce the movement of the diaphragm and chest
  • Rectal temperature: increase maybe due to physical exertion or infection.
  • Appetite: must be assessed in a dull donkey as it might be the only sign of colic.
  • Treatment 
  • Aimed to relieve pain, correct dehydration and restore the normal passage of ingesta.
  • Pain relief: use of nasogastric intubation will help relieve pain, use of NSAIDs e.g. Flunixin meglumine 
  • Correcting dehydration: rapid rehydration IV will restore circulatory blood volume and improve tissue perfusion; will correct shock due to absorption of endotoxin through a compromised intestinal wall
  • Making an impacted donkey move or eat fresh grass may make the animal pass ingesta. Avoid long fibres such as hay and straw until the normal transit of ingesta is established.
  • Impaction colic can be managed by use oral laxatives, mild analgesics, IV/oral fluids. Administration of mineral oil to caecal impaction is less effective than in treatment of large colon impaction because the oil can pass straight into colon without penetrating the caecal mass.
  • Prevention of colic
  • Feed small quantity of good quality food at regular intervals 
  • Do not prevent the horse from eating for a long period, and then let it eat a lot 
  • Avoid grain overfeeding 
  • Offer water little and frequently 
  • Deworm regularly (every 3 months)
  • Check teeth regularly and rasp accordingly
  • 10. Zoonoses
  • Zoonosis: is any infectious disease that can be transmitted to humans by vertebrate animals e.g. rabies, anthrax, glanders
  • 1. Rabies 
  • Rabies is a fatal viral infection in mammals and is transmitted in saliva.
  • Rabies is fatal to humans so extreme care must be taken when handling any suspected case
  • Transmission – Equines are infected via a bite from a rabid animal (dog,donkey or other animals)
  • Clinical signs
  • Divided into the furious (encephalitis) and dumb (paralytic) forms; the disease usually is a combination of both- signs will include
  • Change of behaviour, colic, self mutilation especially on the external genitalia, grinding the teeth, foaming at the mouth, paresis or spastic or flaccid paralysis in one or more limbs and convulsion.
  • Hydrophobia
  • Message to the owners
  • Any animal showing abnormal behaviour or after being bitten by a dog should be isolated in a secure place 
  • If a donkey is bitten by a suspected rabid dog, it is recommended to immediately wash the wound generously with soap and water without touching the area. Gloves required
  • 2. Anthrax
  • Anthrax is an bacterial infection of blood
  • Other species suddenly die of the disease, but horses and donkeys may be ill for a long time and not always die. Clinical signs
  • high temperature (41oc)
  • high pulse rate
  • large swelling around the belly Transmission – Animals can get the disease when they eat a bit of contaminated soil with grass. Prevention
  • Vaccination
  • Avoid that vultures, dogs, etc. can have contact with the blood by burying animals died from anthrax very deep. Treatment  – Give injections of antibiotics such as penicillin
  • Principle of Vaccination 
  • Vaccine is a harm less form of microorganisms (virus, bacteria) administered to the animals orally or parentally. 
  • Due to vaccine/ antigen introduced into the bodies, the animal produces antibodies to protect the animal against the same disease.
  • Vaccines are either live or dead requiring their own handling methods
  • Antibody formation requires at least two to three weeks
  • Vaccination Protocol
  • When a vaccine is introduced in to the body, it forms immunity in the body of the animal 
  • Vaccination is a preventive method from different contagious and infectious diseases and not curative 
  • Vaccination plays a roll in the eradication of infectious diseases.
  • Vaccinate only healthy animals as well as those presented to vet clinic for treatment.
  • Vaccinate all equines starting from 6 weeks old including pregnant mare 
  • 3. Glanders
  • The disease affects the skin and lungs. Horses are resistant to glanders but mules and donkeys die within two weeks
  • Clinical Signs
  • Fever
  • Watery nasal discharge initial but later on the discharge gets thicker.
  • Lumps appear in the nostril and break open. After healing the lump leaves a star-shaped scar in the nostril. The burst lump also releases a sickly honey-like discharge. Treatment: sulphadiazine.
  • Handling of vaccines
  • Storage: great care should be taken in case of storage Live vaccine should be stored in the refrigerator at -20 degree centigrade; while the killed vaccine can be stored at +4 degree centigrade for two years & at room temp. 20 – 21 degree centigrade for 6 months
  • Some equine diseases that need vaccination & the doses of vaccine to be given 
  • A.H.S ——–1cc for adult animals and 1.5 cc for young 
  • Anthrax—– 1cc for adult animal and 1.5 cc for young 
  • Tetanus——1cc for adult animal and 1.5 cc for young 11. Teeth Problems
  • Conditions affecting the teeth include sharp edges and overgrown teeth which may affect the ability of the donkey to chew Tooth rasping -Animals with no clinical signs may still have sharp or damaged teeth that may cause problem later. Older animals may need rasping every 3-6 month Clinical signs of tooth problem include -Thin animal, dropping food (in balls), reluctance to eat, increased salivation, foul smell from the mouth How to rasp  1. It is important to use rasping instrument/ equipments and mouth gag for teeth rasping. The mouth gag if available can be used to examine all of the molar teeth , palate ,upper jaw , lower jaw , cheeks tongue etc. 2. Things to examine are sharp edges, hooks, spikes broken or missing teeth. 3. Sharp edged teeth must be rasped until it comes to the level. Horse Sickness
  • Donkeys seem to be reasonably immune to this disease and, when it does present itself, it is usually takes a much milder form than in horses. However, it should be treated with respect. If the donkey is allowed to rest for 3 weeks recovery is usually spontaneous. It is prevalent after the rains when mosquitoes are more prevalent.  Symptoms:
  • Swollen eye sockets, under the jaw and, sometimes, in the sheath area
  • Liquid dripping from nose and mouth
  • Signs of colic (discomfort)
  • The donkey may still graze naturally, but it will become weak and show a reluctance to work. Prevention/Treatment: 
  • 3 weeks complete rest. 
  • Provide good grazing with shade available.
  • Provide plenty of fresh water. 
  • Use ‘wet smoke fires’ at night. These not only keep livestock free from mosquitoes (including those that are suspected of spreading Rift Valley Fever), they benefit humans too. 
  • Use damp grass/manure as fuel and place in a container (a half drum is excellent). This will create smoke instead of flames. It is very effective against all flying insects. 
  • If the farmer has pyrethrum on his farm, a few dry flowers added to the top of the fire are a huge benefit. If managed sympathetically, recovery is usually spontaneous Mud Fever
  • Mud fever, which is extremely painful, is only seen in the wet weather or when animals are left standing in wet, muddy conditions. In sheep, goats and cattle this will result in foot rot. In donkeys it will result in mud fever. Mud fever is a group of diseases causing irritation and dermatitis in the lower limbs. Often caused by a mixture of bacteria, typically Dermatophilus congolensis, and Staphylococcus spp, mud fever can also be caused by fungal organisms (dermatophytes). Photosensitization, chorioptic mange mites, contact dermatitis and other conditions also contribute to some cases.
  • Resulting in painful sores and scabs, which in severe cases can make a donkey lame, mud fever most commonly affects the pastern and heel area but can also affect the upper leg, the belly, and in some cases the neck and back (also known as Rain Scald). Non-pigmented skin tends to be more severely affected.
  • Muddy, wet fields are conditions in which mud fever thrives. As with any bacterial infection, Mud Fever can become a very serious condition very quickly. The legs can become swollen and sore and open sores can become quickly infected. Often, such is the level of damage to the skin that these open sores can become very difficult to heal. The donkey will be very reluctant to move as this is very painful.
  •  Under normal circumstances the skin acts as a protective barrier, preventing microorganisms from entering the donkeys system and doing any damage. However, the integrity of the epidermis can become compromised through the abrasion of soil grit on cold, wet skin. The continual wetting of the skin causes a breakdown of the protective barrier of the epidermis, allowing the bacterium to enter and cause infection  Symptoms: 
  • Swelling of the affected area
  • Heat and small scabs
  • Listlessness and fever
  • Reluctance to move
  • In severe cases the affected area will ulcerate and the skin will split causing the possibility of secondary infections Prevention/Treatment: 
  • Keeping the donkey out of the wet and mud is the first step in treatment of mud fever 
  • Initial treatment also consists of clipping of the hair away from the infected area and use of an anti-bacterial lotion on the scabs to soften them and gently remove them. 
  • When the scabs are removed, the skin must be kept clean and dry. Washing the infected area with an antiseptic solution (a hydrogen peroxid solution – never neat as this will cause further damage) is part of the treatment for mud fever. 
  • The legs should be dried thoroughly after washing and then sprayed with Alamycin spray (commonly known as ‘dawa blue’ in East Africa) which is readily available and affordable in East Africa. 
  • The donkey will need a treatment of 5 days Penstrep antibiotic (readily available in East Africa).
  • A Veterinary Surgeon should be consulted for further treatment
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